Welcome to our guide on academic language, which provides an introduction to academic voice and language (this page), grammar and punctuation, and proofreading and editing assignments.
Contents of this page:
Please note that, while there are some rules and conventions, academic language depends to some extent on context (discipline, audience and purpose of the text) and personal style. You may wish to further improve your writing skills by reading widely in your field to understand how others write on the subject, along with keeping a vocabulary list that you can add subject-specific words or useful academic phrases to.
Have a look at our introductory video on "Academic Language" for an overview of how to adapt your language to an academic context.
This may be surprising to you, as you probably have had to deal with more than one (arguably, unnecessarily) obscure academic paper, but virtually all literature on academic writing advocates for simplicity and clarity.
Example:
"For the purpose of this survey, each and every individual (that is, all the 21 individuals who filled the survey, which is better than nothing although we asked many more at the cafeteria during lunch time in early January, but they did not wish to participate) was asked several questions, which they had to answer filling a questionnaire, for the purpose of identifying the views of students (the participants to the study) on circular economy"
→
"To identify student views on the circular economy a survey was undertaken. The survey was administered to students attending the University cafeteria from 1pm to 2pm during week 13-17 January. Twenty-one students filled the survey, which was satisfactory."
University level writing requires students to adopt a formal style within their assignments. This tone of communication differs greatly to forms of conversational language, which may include contractions, such as “it’s”, slang, colloquialisms and emotive forms of speech that may suggest biased opinions. Additionally, the academic voice often avoids the use of the first person, “I”, and instead adopts a more distant and unbiased style to suggest well-formulated debates and arguments that are based on supporting evidence, rather than personal opinions.
Avoid contractions
I'm → I am
It's → It is
Isn't → Is not
Let's → Let us
Avoid starting a sentence with a simple conjunction
But there are other reasons... → However, there are other reasons...
And it it has to be considered that... → Moreover, it has to be considered that..
Use formal expressions
A lot of / huge → Considerable
Nonsense → Implausible / Incorrect / Unreasonable
Use the third person or declarative statements
The use of the third person and declarative statements contribute to the authoritativeness and objectivity of your piece. Remember that authoritative form is not sufficient. You need to work on the content too, presenting evidence and reasoning.
Example of third person:
I think that... → This essay argues that...
Example of declarative statement:
In my opinion, sleep supports cognitive functions and is therefore an important factor of healthy living → Sleep supports cognitive functions and is therefore an important factor of healthy living.
Do not personalise
You need to sleep in order to remember better → Sleep is essential to help memory.
Academic writing needs to be as accurate as possible and has to be based on evidence. It's an effortful endeavour, but it is rewarding, contributing to human knowledge.
Examples:
"Cells must be incubated in a warm environment." → "Cells must be incubated at 37ºC."
"Sales have grown recently." → "Between January 2019 and January 2020 sales have grown by 7% (reference)".
Avoid sweeping generalisations
Example:
"Eating fat is bad for health". Are we sure? All types of fat? We should try to be more accurate, for example: "Regular consumption of saturated fats can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases."
How to avoid sweeping generalisations:
Match your words to the strength of evidence
Think of the following example. Which option should you choose to complete the sentence?
"Saturated fats ___ cardiovascular diseases"
a) cause
b) contribute to
c) may contribute to
d) might be a factor of
The choice should be based on your research. You should present the evidence for the statement.
Note: not all statements in your writing need a reference, but they all need to be supported by evidence. The evidence can be presented before of after the statement, depending on the function of the statement (introductory or conclusive) .
Academic writing should be logical and flow smoothly.
The points you present should be structured clearly. Part of the effort of writing is precisely structuring ideas and putting points in an order that is easy for the reader to follow, and seems exhaustive on the topic. There shouldn't be gaps, and the text shouldn't jump between ideas.
Signposting, that is, explicitly indicating to the reader the logic of your writing, is also necessary to help the reader follow the train of your thoughts.
Remember: the reader should not have to use detective work to guess what you are trying to say and why. Don’t leave the links and explanations in your head - nobody can find them there so you won’t get any marks for them! Show clearly how the things you say link together to form and support an argument!
Major signposting
Minor signposting
Linking sentences
Compare the following couples of sentences:
As normally inflation is matched by lower unemployment, the second sentence seems to be advisable, indicating that the author picked the unusual situation, and should expand on it in the rest of the text.
Introducing a source
Express your reasoning by indicating to the reader whether you agree or disagree with a source, or are simply stating the evidence. You can for example vary the conjunction (as; although; despite...), preposition (according to; in line with; counter to...), reporting verb (states; claims; maintains; suggests; proposes; discusses...).
Examples
Look at the examples below and consider the words used. As a reader, would you think the writer is agreeing, disagreeing or simply neutral and stating what Smith says?
According to Smith "..."
As Smith points out "..."
Smith suggests that "..."
Although Smith claims that "..."
Strong paragraphs are important to keep your text organised and logical.
Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences that are linked coherently around one central topic/idea. Paragraphs are the building blocks of academic writing. Each paragraph should do a specific job, moving the argument forward and guiding the reader through your thought process.
Paragraphs should be 10-12 lines long, but variations are acceptable. Do not write one-sentence long paragraphs; this is journalistic style, not academic.
Strong paragraphs
You need to write so-called strong paragraphs wherein you present a topic, discuss it and conclude it, as far as possible. Strong paragraphs may not always be feasible, so do not try to make your text fit into strong paragraphs too rigidly. Strong paragraphs may not work in introductions and conclusions, but should be the staple of the body of your written work.
Follows the structure of a strong paragraph:
Topic sentence: Introduces the topic and states what your paragraph will be about
Development: Expand on the point you are making: explain, analyse, support with examples and/or evidence.
Concluding sentence: Summarise how your evidence backs up your point. You can also introduce what will come next.
PEEL technique
This is a strategy to write strong paragraphs. In each paragraph you should include the following:
Point: what do you want to talk about?
Evidence: show us!
Evaluation: tell us how the evidence does in fact support your point
Link: what's coming next? OR how does this paragraph link to your major argument?
Example of a strong paragraph, with PEEL technique:
Paragraph bridges
Paragraphs may be linked to each other through "paragraph bridges". One simple way of doing this is by repeating a word or phrase.
Example 1:
|
Last sentence of a paragraph: |
First sentence of next paragraph: |
|
In short, a number of efforts have been made to.... |
Despite these efforts,... |
Example 2:
|
Last sentence of a paragraph: |
First sentence of next paragraph: |
|
Smith suggests that there are two types of personalities: introverts and extroverts... |
Introverts typically favour... |
Our academic writing should strive to express equality and respect for all individuals. Subsequently, make sure that your writing is free of sexist language and free of bias based on such factors as race, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, and disability.
Equally, use gender-neutral language:
Chairman → Chairperson
Executives and their wives → Executives and their spouses
Dear Gentlemen → To Whom It May Concern:
Each student must provide his own lab jacket → Students must provide their own lab jackets. Or: Each student must provide his or her own
Websites:
The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Tips and Tools, available at https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/ . This is a well-written and comprehensive guide covering inter alia the following academic language topics: Clichés, Conciseness, Editing and Proofreading, Gender-Inclusive Language, Latin Terms and Abbreviations, Modal Verbs, Passive Voice, Proofreading, Should I Use “I”?, Style, Transitions (ESL), Word Choice.
Morley, J., 2014, Academic Phrasebank - A compendium of commonly used phrasal elements in academic English, available at http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/using-cautious-language/
Books and articles:
Greetham, B. (2018). How to write better essays, 4th ed. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan
Osmond, A. (2013). Academic Writing and Grammar for Students. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Swales, J.F. and Feak, C.B. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students: essential skills and tasks, 2nd ed. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press
Sword, H. (2012). Stylish academic writing. United States of America: Harvard University Press
